Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development

• Key Activity: Learning self-care (e.g., toilet training, dressing).
• Virtue: Will (the will to act independently).
• Negative Outcome: Excessive shame or doubt may result in overdependence on others and low self-esteem.

Toddlers begin exploring their environment and asserting independence in tasks like dressing themselves or choosing foods. If caregivers encourage these efforts, children feel a sense of autonomy (confidence in their ability to handle challenges). Overly critical or controlling caregivers can make the child doubt their abilities, leading to shame and doubt.

• Key Activity: Play, exploration, and asking “why”.
• Virtue: Purpose.
• Negative Outcome: Excessive guilt can stifle creativity and inhibit a child’s desire to assert themselves.

At this stage, children devise new games, imagine different roles, and learn to plan and execute activities. Encouragement fosters initiative (a willingness to try new things). Criticism or discouragement can produce guilt, making children feel they are a nuisance or that their ideas are unacceptable.

• Key Activity: Schoolwork, peer comparison, skill-building.
• Virtue: Competence.
• Negative Outcome: A lasting sense of inferiority can undermine confidence in academic or social settings.

As children enter school, they compare their abilities to peers and seek to demonstrate competence. Support from teachers and parents helps them develop industry (confidence in skills and productivity). Without such support, or when faced with persistent failures, children risk feeling inferior and unmotivated.

• Key Activity: Experimenting with roles, peer influence, self-reflection.
• Virtue: Fidelity (the ability to remain true to oneself and others).
• Negative Outcome: A weak sense of identity can lead to insecurity, confusion, or even rebellion.

During adolescence, the focus is on discovering “Who am I?” Teens explore different roles, values, and goals. When they are free to experiment—and receive guidance without pressure—they often develop a strong sense of identity. If they feel restricted, confused, or overwhelmed, they may experience role confusion.

• Key Activity: Forming romantic relationships, deep friendships, emotional intimacy.
• Virtue: Love.
• Negative Outcome: Chronic isolation may lead to alienation and difficulty maintaining relationships.

Young adults seek close bonds and relationships that involve mutual care and trust. Successful formation of these intimate connections leads to intimacy (the willingness to be open, vulnerable, and committed). Struggling to form meaningful relationships can cause isolation, characterized by loneliness and sometimes depression.

• Key Activity: Parenting, career, community engagement.
• Virtue: Care (concern for future generations).
• Negative Outcome: A sense of stagnation can trigger self-absorption, lack of personal growth, or midlife crisis.

In mid-adulthood, individuals focus on guiding the next generation, whether through parenting, mentoring, or community involvement. Successfully contributing to others’ growth fosters generativity (the sense of productivity and accomplishment). Feeling unproductive or disconnected, by contrast, produces stagnation.

• Key Activity: Life review, reflection on achievements, acceptance of mortality.
• Virtue: Wisdom.
• Negative Outcome: Persistent despair and regret can lead to depression or hopelessness.

In late adulthood, people reflect on their lives and accomplishments. If they view their experiences as meaningful, they achieve ego integrity (a sense of satisfaction and readiness to face life’s end). Those who feel they’ve fallen short may experience despair, marked by regret, bitterness, or fear of death.